The relationship between sadness and prosocial behavior: A three-level meta-analysis

Abstract: Abstract: As one of the most fundamental emotional experiences in humans, the impact of sadness on prosocial behavior has long been a subject of debate in academia. Traditional perspectives often emphasize its negative effects, yet empirical findings remain inconsistent. To resolve this controversy and uncover the reasons for the divergent results, this study employed a random-effects model to conduct a three-level meta-analysis of 41 studies (70 effect sizes, total sample size = 10,173) spanning nearly 50 years. The results revealed a weak but significant positive correlation between sadness and prosocial behavior (r = 0.13, 95% CI [0.08, 0.18]). Developmental stage significantly moderated this effect, whereas factors such as gender and induction methods showed no significant influence. A p-curve analysis confirmed the genuineness of the effect, ruling out publication bias or p-hacking. This study challenges the traditional negative perception of sadness, highlighting its potential for prosocial transformation and offering new insights for emotional intervention.