Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2024-04-26
Abstract： Memories of individuals are typically encoded, stored, recalled, and reconstructed through direct or indirect interactions with others. Cuc et al. (2007) founded that during interactive retrieval, speakers’ selective recall of memories results in the forgetting of non-target information related to the retrieved information, a phenomenon known as retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF). Simultaneously, listeners in this interactive process are also influenced by the speakers’ selective recall, leading to the forgetting of relevant but not retrieved information, a phenomenon termed socially shared retrieval-induced forgetting (SS-RIF). Building on the intertwined connection between emotion, motivation, and memory, this study investigates the impact of emotional valence and motivation on socially shared retrieval-induced forgetting in the context of interactive retrieval.
In Experiment 1, emotional valence and item type were manipulated to explore the influence of emotional valence on socially shared retrieval-induced forgetting. The experiment employed a within-participants design of 3 (emotional valence: positive emotion, neutral emotion, negative emotion) × 4 (item type: Rp+, Rp−, Nrp+, Nrp−). The dependent variable was participants’ recall accuracy of items under the three emotional conditions. The results demonstrated that listeners exhibited socially shared retrieval-induced forgetting effects under positive and neutral emotions but not under negative emotions in the interactive retrieval practice paradigm. Additionally, the effect was more pronounced under positive emotions compared to neutral emotions, aligning with our Hypothesis 1.
Experiment 2 manipulated positive emotional motivation and item type to investigate the impact of motivation on socially shared retrieval-induced forgetting. The experiment employed a within-participants design of 2 (positive emotional motivation dimension: high-motivation with positive emotion, low-motivation with positive emotion) × 4 (item type: Rp+, Rp−, Nrp+, Nrp−). Results indicated that listeners exhibited socially shared retrieval-induced forgetting effects under both high- and low-motivation with positive emotional conditions, consistent with the findings of Experiment 1. Moreover, the level of socially shared retrieval-induced forgetting was significantly higher under high-motivation with positive emotions compared to low-motivation with positive emotions, supporting our Hypothesis 2.
These findings offer empirical support for comprehending the impact of emotional valence and motivation on socially shared retrieval-induced forgetting, underscoring the crucial role of emotion and motivation in memory outcomes during social interactive tasks.
Subjects: Psychology >> Psychological Measurement submitted time 2024-02-01
Abstract： To obtain a high-quality large-scale item bank, the extensive manpower and resources required for traditional project development have been constraining the development and application of computerized adaptive testing. However, the automatic item generation, based on the latest natural language processing technology holds promise in addressing this challenge. With the advancements in generative pre-trained models based on the Transformer architecture, the generation of items tailored to specific measurement objectives (especially non-cognitive tasks) becomes feasible. This study aimed to utilize ChatGPT to generate a large number of Chinese version personality items measuring emotional stability and to establish a computerized adaptive item bank based on this premise.
We utilized ChatGPT based on GPT-4 Turbo to generate 114 items measuring emotional stability. Following expert review, 75 items were retained and formed the GPT item bank, while 42 widely-used items were selected to form the classic item bank. Testing was conducted on the aforementioned items, yielding 479 valid participants. Additionally, sample data from two separately administered measures, CBF-PI-B and BFI-2, were going to be used for subsequent cross-sample reliability comparisons. Procedures for item bank construction including unidimensionality test, IRT model selection, item analysis, and item bank quality analysis, as well as simulated computerized adaptive testing, were employed to assess the quality and CAT performance of the item bank.
After the above analysis steps, it was found that all items in the classic item bank and the GPT item bank passed the unidimensionality test, showing no differential item functioning, and had good discrimination parameters and reasonable difficulty distribution. Both item banks provided high test information and marginal reliability for most trait levels of the examinees, with low measurement error. The overall item bank formed by combining all items remained of good quality. Simulation results of computerized adaptive testing showed that all three item banks achieved high validity with fewer items compared to traditional tests for the same level of precision. Under the same testing length, GPT item bank exhibited higher reliability and demonstrated stability across samples. Additionally, comparison revealed that the CAT performance of the GPT item bank even exceeded that of the classic item bank, while the overall item bank performance was slightly better than that of the GPT item bank.
This study innovatively explores the development of a computerized adaptive item bank using the latest version of ChatGPT, validating the feasibility of this user-friendly project generation tool. Through comparison with previous research results, it reconfirms the excellent quality of projects generated by GPT-4. The study showcases the immense potential and possibilities of large language models in project development, particularly in the creation of large-scale item banks, while also indicating at a shift in the responsibilities of psychologists in future project development.
Peer Review Status:
Awaiting Review
Subjects: Psychology >> Developmental Psychology submitted time 2023-11-07
Abstract： In natural unspaced Chinese reading, there are no salient visual word segmentation cues (like word spaces) to demark where words begin or end, yet Chinese skilled readers process a comparable amount of text content as efficiently as English readers, processing roughly 400 characters (equal to 260 words) per minute (see Liversedge et al., 2016). This raises the question of how Chinese readers engage in such word segmentation processing efficiently and effectively. Liang et al (2015, 2017) have shown that the positional probability information associated with a character, might offer a cue to the likely positions of word boundaries during Chinese incidental word learning. Given that they simultaneously manipulated the positional probabilities of both word initial and word final characters to make their manipulations maximally effective, it is unclear whether the initial, the final, or both constituent characters' positional probabilities contribute to the word segmentation and word identification effects during incidental word learning in Chinese reading. For this reason, in the present study, two parallel experiments were designed to directly investigate whether word initial, or word ending characters are more or less important for word segmentation word learning in Chinese reading. Two-character pseudowords were constructed as novel words. Each novel word was embedded into six high-constraint contexts for readers to establish novel lexical representation. In Experiment 1, we examined how word’s initial character positional probability influenced word segmentation and word identification during Chinese word learning. The initial character’s positional probability of target words was manipulated as being either high or low, and the final character was kept identical across the two conditions. In Experiment 2, an analogous manipulation was made for the final character of the target word to check whether the final character positional probability of two-character words can be used as word segmentation cue. We also included “Exposure” as a continuous variable into the model to further examine how the process of initial and final character positional probabilities changed with exposure. In both experiments, the participants spent shorter reading times and made fewer fixations on targets that comprised initial and final characters with high relative to low positional probabilities, suggesting that the positional probability of both the initial and final character of a word influences segmentation commitments in novel word learning in Chinese reading. Furthermore, both the effect of initial and final character positional probabilities of novel words decreased with exposure, showing the typical familiarity effect. To be somewhat different, the familiarity effect associated with the initial character had a slower time course relative to final character. This finding suggests that the role of word’s initial character positional probability is of more importance than that of final character’s, supporting the concurrent standpoint that word beginning constituents might be more influential than word final constituents during two-character word identification in Chinese reading. Based on the findings above, the time course of the process of initial and final character positional probabilities of novel words is argued and summarized as follows. During the early stage of word learning, both the statistical properties of word’s initial and final character positional probabilities are processed as segmentation cue. As lexical familiarity increases, the extent to such segmentation roles decreases, which initially begins with final character, and then occurs with initial character. Later, both the roles of initial and final character positional probabilities disappear with the establishment of a more-integral representation of novel words.
Subjects: Other Disciplines >> Synthetic discipline submitted time 2023-10-09 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Action video games (AVG) require participants to rapidly process and accurately respond to multiple complex pieces of information within a wide field of vision. Attention, which is the direction and concentration of consciousness to a certain object or location, plays an important role in cognitive processing and everyday life. However, whether AVG can boost attention development has been a controversy issue in previous studies. Some studies indicated that the AVG could enhance players' attention ability, while others reported that the attention of players was not impacted by AVG. The reason for this controversy may be that the previous researchers had not taken into account the varying characteristics of the subnetworks of attention. In order to further clarify the mechanisms of AVG's effects on players' attention, this study will examine the effects of AVG on different attentional sub-networks (alertness, orientation and executive control) and, at the same time, use behavioral indicators as moderating variables to provide more clarity on the relationship between AVG and different attentional sub-networks.The aim of this meta-analysis was to investigate the relationship between AVGs and attentional subnetworks. English and Chinese literature was searched from January 2009 to December 2021. Studies were included in the analysis if they clearly distinguished between action video game groups and non-action video game groups to examine the relationship between action video games and player attention, if the study clearly reported the sample size of subjects and the study methodology, and if the study provided detailed statistical information related to the amount of effect that could be calculated (e.g., sample size, mean, F-value or t-value, p-value, etc.) and did not contain obvious errors .The studies were obtained by searching the keywords action video game, shooter game, attention, visual search, orienting, etc., from the full-text databases of China National Knowledge Infrastructure, Wanfang, Web of Science, PubMed and PsycInfo. Leading to the inclusion of 28 studies and 71 independent effect sizes. Data coding and analysis was performed using Comprehensive Meta Analysis 3.0 to examine main and moderating effects. Random effect models were employed to assess heterogeneity in alertness, orientation and executive control. Funnel plot and Rosenthal's Nfs test of publication bias revealed no significant publication bias.The main effect test found that AVGs had various influences on attentional, alertness, orientation and executive control, with the alertness network (d = 0.75, 95%Cl = 0.41, 1.10 ) exhibiting the strongest effects. However, presenting moderately low effects on orienting (d = 0.58, 95% Cl = 0.42, 0.74 ) and low effects on executive control (d = 0.39, 95% Cl = 0.25, 0.53 ), the results suggest that AVG has an effect on all attentional subnetworks, but compared to the effects on orienting and executive function networks, the effect on the vigilance network the effects were somewhat stronger for the attentional network. Whereas all three attentional subnetworks were significantly moderated by behavioural indicators, the results showed that the value of the effect of accuracy was greater than the value of the effect of reaction time, indicating that the effect of AVG on attention was more sensitive to response time compared to accuracy. To sum up, these results indicate that AVGs are most closely associated with attentional alertness, and are influenced by response times.In sum, this meta-analysis not only elucidates the disputes and contradictions in earlier studies, but also elucidates the association between AVGs and attention, thus furnishing new evidence for the evolution of brain plasticity and the educational implications of AVGs. This study can contribute to a better understanding of the relationship between AVGs and attention, providing a basis for comparing results across different studies. Key words
Subjects: Other Disciplines >> Synthetic discipline submitted time 2023-10-09 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Precision functional magnetic resonance imaging (pfMRI) refers to a data acquisition strategy that collects large amounts of fMRI data in single individuals. Compared with traditional fMRI research, which collects a small amount of data for each participant and then reveals the underlying brain mechanisms of cognitive process or the shared brain function features of a specific population through the group average, the advantage of this method is that it can reveal the individual brain features, so it has been increasingly recognized and applied by researchers.Classical pfMRI datasets usually contain data from multiple modalities, such as functional MRI data(resting state, task state), structural MRI data(e.g., T1-weighted images, T2-weighted images), gene expression, etc. Currently, most studies only use resting-state data. There is no consensus on the scanning time required by the pfMRI. Based on the existing studies, it can be found that its requirements of data amount vary greatly with brain regions, metrics, and times of sessions/runs. Summarizing the existing studies, it can be found that the scan time of the resting-state data ranged from 0.4 hours to 32 hours, and the amount of data ranged from 565 volumes to 79360 volumes. In terms of data quality, the pfMRI puts forward higher requirements. For example, in classical studies, volumes with frame-wise displacement greater than 0.2mm are usually censored in preprocessing, which reflects a stricter control of head motion noise. Since the pfMRI was proposed, numerous studies (33 studies since 2020 alone) have used this method to reveal the individualized functional network organization from different perspectives, mainly including the following six aspects: (1) In terms of individual differences in functional network organization, researchers have revealed interindividual variability in functional network organization from different data analysis perspectives (node-based functional connectivity and edge-based functional connectivity) and different brain regions (cerebral cortex and subcortical structures), and found that the interindividual variability in the association network was the largest. Moreover, the researchers further proposed the concept of network variation, which represents regions that differ in the individual from the group mean functional connectivity pattern. It was found that network variation existed in all individuals, but there was also interindividual variation in the location, size, and network assignment of network variation. In addition, these network variants showed hemispheric asymmetry and included two types of boundary expansion and ectopic invasion. (2) Based on the findings of individual differences, researchers have successfully identified individuals through the features of functional network organization in the resting state and task state. (3) In addition, some researchers have used pfMRI to conduct more fine functional localization of the default mode network and inferior frontal gyrus and found that there are sub-regions responsible for different functions. (4) In terms of network hubs, the pfMRI was used to identify network hubs in individuals, which excludes the alternative interpretation for network hubs in traditional fMRI studies and proves the interindividual variability of network hubs. (5) In terms of individual functional network development and plasticity, the researchers compared the functional network organization of participants aged 8~23 years and revealed the features of functional network organization among participants of different age groups. It was also found that the characteristics of network organization were affected by hormone levels and had plasticity. (6) In clinical application, pfMRI was found to be able to identify individual stimulation targets during transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) treatment, and targeted functional network stimulation (TANS) was proposed. In addition, pfMRI has been used to explore the functional network organization features of patients with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and perinatal stroke. In summary, pfMRI has made a wealth of research findings in exploring individual differences and individual identification in functional network organization, functional localization of local brain regions, identification of individual network hubs, development and plasticity of individual functional networks, and clinical application. It exhibits unique advantages compared to group-average fMRI studies in Individualized brain function research. It is of great significance to reveal the basic principles of brain cognition and the diagnosis and treatment of major brain diseases. Future research should further explore the relationship between the features of individual functional networks and behavioral performance, and try to overcome the limitation of long scanning time by improving data analysis methods (such as introducing multi-session hierarchical Bayesian model (MS-HBM)) or fMRI imaging technologies (such as multi-echo fMRI and multi-band fMRI), and attempt to introduce this method into task-state fMRI and multimodal research.
Subjects: Other Disciplines >> Synthetic discipline submitted time 2023-10-09 Cooperative journals: 《心理学报》
Abstract： In most visual scenes, the visual system cannot process all the information simultaneously; instead, it processes certain information first. Emotional stimuli are more likely to attract the attention of the visual system than non-emotional stimuli. However, it may be challenging to suppress the attention gained by emotional stimuli (though such a stimulus is irrelevant), and it may result in Emotion-induced Blindness (EiB), whereby the presence of an emotional stimulus fails to correlate with a task that attracts an individual’s attention. Therefore, individuals become “blinded” to a rapidly presented target stimulus. The present study investigated the effects of physical and emotional salience of emotional distractors on EiB under different background conditions using the rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) paradigm. This study used a three-factor design in which background conditions (similar vs. dissimilar), disturbance types (negative vs. neutral vs. baseline), and Lag (Lag 2 vs. Lag 8) were all within-participant variables. The dependent variable was the accuracy of the target judgment. This study consisted of three main phases. First, we applied a 2.5 cm × 2.5 cm (500 ms) black “+” fixation point with 0.39× 0.39 degrees a visual angle (DVA) that appeared in the center of the screen followed by an RSVP stimulus stream consisting of 15 images (100 ms each). Key disturbance images appeared randomly at several positions, ranging from four to six, in the stimulus stream. The baseline disturbances were selected from the same set of background images. The target stimulus appeared at either position 2 (Lag 2) or position 8 (Lag 8) following the presentation of the disturbance stimulus. At the end of each sequence, participants were instructed to answer whether the target stimulus was rotated to the left or right by pressing the “F” or “J” keys. The study utilized a repeated-measures ANOVA to analyze the impact of background conditions (similar vs. dissimilar), Lag (Lag 2 vs. Lag 8), and type of distractor (negative vs. neutral vs. baseline) on the correct rate of target identification by the study participants. Experiment 1 showed that EiB occurred under different background conditions but disappeared under similar background conditions. Experiment 2 compared the differences in EiB between the two groups under background conditions after adding a red rectangular border to the key distractor pictures. In Experiment 2, EiB occurred under dissimilar background conditions for both negative and neutral conditions, which is consistent with the findings of Experiment 1. However, the magnitude of the EiB was much greater in Experiment 2 (25%) than in Experiment 1 (17%). Additionally, under similar background conditions, the EiB produced by negative pictures was significantly larger than in Experiment 1 (10% vs. 3%). We also noted that individual notice of the emotional salience of the distractors had a significant effect on EiB, which was restored once cued to negative distractors under similar background conditions. In summary, the EiB phenomenon is driven by the physical salience of emotional distractors, rather than emotional salience. Additionally, the current findings showed that EiB was related to the attentional resources associated with distractor stimuli; in other words, the more attentional resources attracted by distractor stimuli, the more likely the occurrence of EiB. The number of attentional resources attracted by distractor stimuli was related to the difference in stimulus attributes and the number of attentional resources initially invested.
Subjects: Psychology >> Developmental Psychology submitted time 2023-09-04
Abstract：依恋的可塑性是成人依恋领域研究的重要主题，而探究依恋的可塑性首先需要了解依恋安全感是如何获得的。依恋控制系统模型指出，个体可以通过内部表征的方式通达依恋安全感。现有研究中常常将安全基地脚本作为这种内部表征方式，但忽视了另一种内部表征形式，即依恋相关情景模拟。先前有几项研究提出并证实了依恋相关情景模拟这一新的依恋安全感通达路径，但尚未回答：这一新的通达路径与已有路径相比有何特异性？其作用机制是什么？以及如何基于此进行依恋安全干预？本课题将通过三项研究来对这些问题进行考察：研究一考察依恋相关情景模拟对依恋安全的影响及其特异性；研究二从依恋相关情景模拟的内容和加工过程的角度考察其对依恋安全感的影响机制；研究三采用自然语言处理技术开发依恋相关情景模拟分类方法，并将其用于依恋安全干预。本课题将补充依恋控制系统模型的内容，能够解释依恋系统的情境灵活性，并为理解依恋的可塑性及进行依恋安全的干预带来启发。
Subjects: Psychology >> Experimental Psychology submitted time 2023-06-19
Abstract： In most visual scenes, the visual system cannot process all the information simultaneously; instead, it processes certain information first. Emotional stimuli are more likely to attract the attention of the visual system than non-emotional stimuli. However, it may be challenging to suppress the attention gained by emotional stimuli (though such a stimulus is irrelevant), and it may result in Emotion-induced Blindness (EiB), whereby the presence of an emotional stimulus fails to correlate with a task that attracts an individual’s attention. Therefore, individuals become “blinded” to a rapidly presented target stimulus. The present study investigated the effects of physical and emotional salience of emotional distractors on EiB under different background conditions using the rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) paradigm. This study used a three-factor design in which background conditions (similar vs. dissimilar), disturbance types (negative vs. neutral vs. baseline), and lag (Lag2 vs. Lag8) were all within-participant variables. The dependent variable was the accuracy of the target judgment. This study consisted of three main phases. First, we applied a 2.5 cm × 2.5 cm (500 ms) black “+” fixation point with 0.39× 0.39 degrees a visual angle (DVA) that appeared in the center of the screen followed by an RSVP stimulus stream consisting of 15 images (100 ms each). Key disturbance images appeared randomly at several positions, ranging from four to six, in the stimulus stream. The baseline disturbances were selected from the same set of background images. The target stimulus appeared at either position 2 (Lag2) or position 8 (Lag8) following the presentation of the disturbance stimulus. At the end of each sequence, participants were instructed to answer whether the target stimulus was rotated to the left or right by pressing the “F” or “J” keys.
The study utilized a repeated-measures ANOVA to analyze the impact of background conditions (similar vs. dissimilar), lag (2 vs. 8), and type of distractor (negative vs. neutral vs. baseline) on the correct rate of target identification by the study participants. Experiment 1 showed that EiB occurred under different background conditions but disappeared under similar background conditions. Experiment 2 compared the differences in EiB between the two groups under background conditions after adding a red rectangular border to the key distractor pictures. In Experiment 2, EiB occurred under dissimilar background conditions for both negative and neutral conditions, which is consistent with the findings of Experiment 1. However, the magnitude of the EiB was much greater in Experiment 2 (25%) than in Experiment 1 (17%). Additionally, under similar background conditions, the EiB produced by negative pictures was significantly larger than in Experiment 1 (10% vs. 3%). We also noted that individual notice of the emotional salience of the distractors had a significant effect on EiB, which was restored once cued to negative distractors under similar background conditions. In summary, the EiB phenomenon is driven by the physical salience of emotional distractors, rather than emotional salience. Additionally, the current findings showed that EiB was related to the attentional resources associated with distractor stimuli; in other words, the more attentional resources attracted by distractor stimuli, the more likely the occurrence of EiB. The number of attentional resources attracted by distractor stimuli was related to the difference in stimulus attributes and the number of attentional resources.
Subjects: Psychology >> Cognitive Psychology submitted time 2023-04-21
Abstract： Action video games (AVG) require players to process and quickly respond to multiple complex and rapidly changing pieces of information in a wide field of view. Previous research has debated whether AVG can promote the development of attentional skills. We used a meta-analysis approach to analyze the effects of AVG on attention and its sub-networks. The effects of behavioral indicators as moderating variables in the relationship between them were also examined. Atotal of 28eligible papers with 71 effect sizes involving 3359 subjects was included. The results showed that AVGhad the most significant effect on attentional alertness, with a relatively high effect, while attentional orientation and executive control had a relatively low effects. Additionally, the effect of AVGonattention was moderated by behavioral indicators, with reaction times being greater than the effect of accuracy, suggesting that reaction times are more sensitive when examining attention functions. These findings suggest that AVG are most closely related to the alertness function and are influenced by the performance of reaction times. The present study clarifies the relationship between AVG and attentionand provides a basis for comparison of results across studies.
Subjects: Psychology >> Developmental Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： The ability to pre-process information from the parafovea, a hallmark component of skilled reading ( Blythe & Joseph, 2011), refers to the fact that readers visually and linguistically analyse upcoming words prior to their direct fixation. Previous findings regarding depth of pre-processing effects that are based on alphabetic language reading are mixed. One very important reason is that there is considerable variability in the length of target words in those studies conducted on alphabetic reading scripts. By contrast, it is possible to conduct such studies in Chinese to allow for parafoveal processing of text to be operationalized over characters without length variability. Chinese is a language with characteristics that are optimal for investigating parafoveal processing. The present project will take advantage of Chinese text characteristics to examine three aspects of parafoveal processing by using the eye tracking technique: (1) the first study aims at exploring how parafoveal load affects the spatial extent of pre-processing; (2) the second study attempts to examine whether and how foveal load influences the spatial extent and depth of pre-processing; on the basis of the first two studies, (3) the third study will investigate how reading skill modulates the spatial and depth effects of parafoveal processing, and also how reading efficiency interacts with spatial extent and depth of pre-processing. The findings of the current project will seek to illuminate currently controversial issues on parafoveal processing, and will be beneficial for examining and extending the current reading models of eye movement control (e.g., E-Z reader model, SWIFT model).
Subjects: Psychology >> Developmental Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Statistical learning (SL), which was first addressed in the seminal study on speech segmentation of infants by Saffran et al. (1996), is a process of detecting the statistical regularities such as transitional probability in continuous flow of stimuli. Previous studies have proven the general existence of SL, and in recent years close attention has been placed on its specificity and its impact on other cognitive activities, especially revealing the cognitive neural mechanisms of SL and its interaction with language by exploring the process and the specificity of SL. According to the multimodal data from brain and behavior measures, future studies should seek more behavioral and neural indexes to evaluate the performance of SL, to explore the dynamic changes in neural activities of different types of SL and to construct the connection between neural correlates and behavioral performance, which will help to have an in-depth understanding of SL. Based on previous discoveries on the interaction between SL and language, future studies could determine whether SL is an effective intervention to improve language acquisition and how it works in the improvement, through exploring the effect of music SL training on second language learning of adult learners.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Mind sports are competitive sports that aim at developing intelligence and involves multiple high-level cognitive processing. Deliberate practice enables the mind sports experts to exhibit steady expertise effects in domain-specific tasks. A review of previous research reveals that perception and memory are not only the basis of high-level cognitive functions, but also the central to the mind sports expert advantage. That is, the extraordinary performance of the mind sports experts is based on their perceptual and memory advantage. In this paper, we summarize the cognitive neural mechanisms through which expert perception and memory are influenced by the experience of mind sports from the perspective of cognitive neuropsychology to reveal the intrinsic processing patterns and neural mechanisms of the expertise effects in mind sports. Long-term training contributed to a stable holistic perceptual advantage in mind sports experts, as reflected by the fact that experts made a greater proportion of fixations between the pieces and completed the perceptual task with fewer fixations. This performance is consistent with the holistic model of image perception, in which the experts automatically process information about the entire game or board with a larger perceptual span, quickly locate task-relevant target areas with prior knowledge, and process abstract pieces relations in parallel. The temporo-parietal junction and fusiform gyri are the neural bases of a holistic perceptual process. Mind sports experts also have a stable memory advantage. Long-term training in mind sports allows experts to store not only a large amount of visual-spatial information in their long-term memory, but also more abstract and generalized knowledge. The Chunking and Template theory argues that experts rely primarily on concrete visuospatial information and therefore have an advantage when processing familiar stimuli. To explain experts' advantage in memorizing random chess stimuli, the SEEK theory suggests that experts have rich and flexible abstract knowledge and therefore have a memory advantage even when processing unfamiliar or stimuli that change presentation. The neural basis for the expert's advantage in accurate, rapid, and flexible memory is the synergistic activity of the medial temporal, frontotemporal, and frontoparietal regions. The existence of stable superior performance of experts in mind sports on tasks within the domain suggests that deliberate practice can improve experts' specific skills, supporting the view that training can promote intelligence. The following shortcomings still exist: 1) most studies have mainly focused on the chess domain, and it is still unclear whether the differences in cognitive demands of different mind sports lead to differences in extrinsic behavior and intrinsic neural basis; 2) existing studies have mainly examined the neural mechanisms underlying mind sports experts' advantage effects through univariate analysis based on voxels. Multi-voxel pattern analysis and representational similarity analysis can be used to explore the intrinsic neural basis more profoundly; 3) The timing of stimulus presentation has not been standardized and the adequacy of timing may lead to a decrease in group differentiation and a mix of other cognitive components. Multimodal studies can be conducted with high temporal resolution EEG and eye-movement recording to explore the dynamic cognitive neural mechanisms in depth. 4) due to a lack of long-term longitudinal study on how novices would become mind sports experts through deliberate practice, it remains incomplete regarding the cognitive performance and the trajectory of neural mechanism changes of mind sports experts. Future research can examine types of mind sports, innovative experimental paradigms, combined with measurement equipment and cognitive characteristics, to explore in depth and detail the neural mechanisms underlying the holistic perceptual advantage and memory advantage of mind sports experts, to provide a theoretical basis for artificial intelligence and skill training.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-27 Cooperative journals: 《心理学报》
Abstract： Global motion perception (GMP) is an important aspect of visual perception. Numerous studies have found that GMP of cognitively healthy elderly declines with aging and it cannot be explained by age differences in the visual system. The neural mechanism of aging on GMP remains unclear. Resting-state fMRI has been widely used to detect the internal spontaneous activity of the aging brain. Thus, whether the functional activity of brain regions related to the GMP for the elderly in the resting state is an effective indicator of their global motion sensitivity (GMS) still needs further investigation. To reveal the neural basis of GMP decline for the elderly, the relationships between the resting-state functional activities of GMP related brain areas (Regions of Interest, ROI: V1, V2, V3, and MT/V5) and individuals’ motion coherence threshold (MCT) were analyzed by using rs-fMRI technology. In this study, Random Dot Kinematogram (RDK) paradigm was used to evaluate an individual’s GMS with the MCT as the indicator. A higher threshold of the RDK task meant lower sensitivity. Meanwhile, the rs-fMRI data of 36 younger adults (M = 22.04 years old) and 31 older adults (M = 65.05 years old) were acquired using rapid echo-planar imaging (EPI) sequence from a 3T Siemens Prisma magnetic resonance scanner, with TR = 2s, TE = 30ms, Time points = 240 (young) or 246 (old). Rs-fMRI data were preprocessed and processed using SPM (http://www. fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/spm) and DPABI (http://rfmri.org/dpabi) toolbox to obtain the functional activities of the ROIs, including ReHo, ALFF, voxel-wise FC, and ROI-wise FC. Then, the regional measures including three nodal centrality metrics (degree K, efficiency Enodal and betweenness b) and the global measures including small-world parameters (clustering coefficient Cp, characteristic path length Lp, normalized clustering coefficient γ, normalized characteristic path length λ, and small-worldness σ) and network efficiency (global efficiency Eglob and local efficiency Eloc) were calculated using GRETNA (http//www.nitrc.org/projects/gretna/) graph toolbox. To determine whether there were significant group differences in these functional properties, two-sample t-tests were performed on each metric. When significant between-group differences in any functional metrics were obtained, the Pearson correlation coefficients among these metrics and individuals’ MCT were further calculated to assess the relationship between changes in brain function and GMP aging. Results showed that 1) the ReHo values of right V3 and bilateral MT/V5 for older adults were significantly lower than that of younger adults, as well as the ALFF of bilateral MT/V5, and these functional metrics were significantly negatively correlated with individuals’ MCT; 2) The FCs between V2 and left primary motor cortex, V3 and left secondary visual cortex, MT/V5 and left premotor cortex, as well as the FCs between V1, V2, V3 and MT/V5 regions for the older adults were significantly stronger than that of younger adults, and these FCs were correlated with individuals’ MCT; 3) Older adults’ K, Enodal and b of most nodes in temporal lobe were significantly lower than younger adults, and the Enodal of the right temporal cortex were significantly negatively correlated with individuals’ MCT; 4) Older adults’ global network properties including small-world parameters (Cp, γ, Lp, λ, and σ) and network efficiency (Eglob and Eloc) were all significantly lower than younger adults’, with CP and Eloc significantly negatively correlated with their MCT.These findings suggested that the decline of GMS for the elderly was associated not only with functional changes in the dorsal visual pathway, especially in the MT/V5, but may also with functional changes in broader areas of the whole brain, which supported the theory of “dedifferentiation”.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-27 Cooperative journals: 《心理学报》
Abstract： In alphabetic writing systems (such as English), the spaces between words mark the word boundaries, and the basic unit of reading is distinguished during visual-level processing. The visual-level information of word boundaries facilitates reading. Chinese is an ideographic language whose text contains no intrinsic inter-word spaces as the marker of word boundaries. Previous studies have shown that the basic processing unit of Chinese reading is also a word. However, findings remain inconsistent regarding whether inserting spaces between words in Chinese text promotes reading performance. Researchers have proposed that there may be a trade-off between text familiarity and the facilitation effect of inter-word spaces. The purpose of Experiment 1 was to examine whether there was trade-off between text familiarity and facilitation of inter-word spaces. Before reading training, Experiment 1 was conducted that 40 native Chinese undergraduates read Chinese sentences from right to left on four text conditions. The results showed faster reading speed and shorter total reading time for the inter-word spaced text. Based on this finding, 40 native Chinese undergraduates who did not participate in the first stage read Chinese sentences from right to left on four text conditions after ten-day reading training, then, the eye tracking data of participants during Chinese reading were recorded in Experiment 1. Experiment 1 verified there was trade-off between text familiarity and inter-word spaces’ facilitation in Chinese, then, the Experiment 2 examined the role of text familiarity and word frequency in vocabulary recognition. Forty students read Chinese sentences under familiar (from left to right) and unfamiliar (from right to left) texts. The target words were high frequency or low frequency. Using Eyelink 1000, the eye tracking data of 32 undergraduates during Chinese reading were recorded in Experiment 2. Second, right-to-left reading training was conducted over 10 days to improve right-to-left reading experience. Then, the eye tracking data of participants during Chinese reading were recorded in Experiment 2. The results in Experiment 1 showed that: (1) Before training, there was significant different between the total reading time and reading speed under unfamiliarity text, which were shorter reading time and faster reading speed in the inter-word spaced text. (2) After training, there was no significant difference between the total reading time and reading speed in the inter-word spaced text and unspaced text, which suggests that the facilitation effect of inter-word spaces in Chinese reading changed smaller. The results in Experiment 2 showed that: (1) The effect of text familiarity was significant. The fixated time was shorter, and the skipping rate was higher under the familiar text. (2) The main effect of word frequency was significant. Low-frequency words had longer fixation times and a higher skipping rate. (3) Right-to-left training improves reading performance from right to left. (4) The early indexes showed a significant interaction between text familiarity and word frequency. A word-frequency effect occurred under the familiar but not under the unfamiliar texts. The late indexes showed that the interaction between text familiarity and word-frequency was not significant. Results in experiment 1 suggested that there was trade-off between text familiarity and the facilitation of inter-word spaces, which supported the assumption in previous studies. In addition, results in experiment 2 showed the text familiarity may affect the early processing in vocabulary recognition. Based on the Chinese integrated reading model, the word segmentation and vocabulary recognition are unified processing. The E-Z reader model holds the opposite point. Combine the experiment 1 and experiment 2, research showed that word segmentation and vocabulary recognition may be sequential processing in Chinese reading, which provided empirical evidence for Chinese E-Z reader model rather than Chinese integrated model.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-27 Cooperative journals: 《心理学报》
Abstract： According to the lexical quality hypothesis, high proficient (fast) readers have well-specified lexical representations which enable automatic word identification and less context decoding, while low proficient (slow) readers rely on context for word identification during reading due to their imprecise lexical quality. In contrast, the predictive coding framework assumes that high proficient readers rely more on their reading experience to predict the upcoming context compared to low proficient readers. However, it is still unclear how skilled readers with different levels of reading proficiency rely on context information (e.g., predictability) for word processing during Chinese reading. In two experiments, the present study aimed to investigate individual differences in the use of predictability for word identification by using the eye-tracking technique. In Experiment 1, eye movements of fast and slow readers were recorded while they were reading sentences containing predictable or unpredictable target words, with the aim to investigate the differences in predictability effects between the two groups. Sixty pairs of predictable-unpredictable target words were selected, each of which was embedded into the same sentence frame. Fifteen fast and 15 slow readers, selected from a group of 66 participants based on their reading rates, participated in Experiment 1. In Experiment 2, parafoveal previews of the 60 predictable target words (identical word, visually similar pseudocharacter, unpredictable word or visually dissimilar pseudocharacter) were manipulated by using the boundary paradigm to explore how parafoveal preview influences processing of predictability information in the fast and slow readers. The eye movements of 20 fast and 20 slow readers, selected from a group of 80 participants on the basis of their reading rates, were recorded while they were reading sentences containing predictable target words with different previews in Experiment 2. The results showed that fast readers fixated shorter and less on the target words and were more likely to skip the target words than slow readers. In Experiment 1, although reliable predictability effects with shorter fixations for predictable than unpredictable words were found, it did not interact with reading groups. However, results in Experiment 2 showed robust parafoveal preview effects on the target word which interacted with reading groups. In particular, the two groups had the same first-pass fixation times (i.e., FFD, SFD, GD) at the target words under the identical previews, while slow readers made longer fixations than fast readers at the targets with unpredictable previews or unrelated previews. In addition, fast readers skipped target words at a similar probability under both the identical preview and unpredictable preview conditions, while slow readers were less likely to skip target words with unpredictable previews than identical previews. The current findings indicate that fast and slow readers rely on context to a similar degree during their foveal lexical processing whereas the two groups show different utilization of previews of the predictable word during their parafoveal processing. To be specific, compared to fast readers, slow readers are inefficient in activating the predictable word with a visually similar preview; moreover, slow readers are disturbed more by the unpredictable preview or the visually dissimilar preview for their lexical processing, which suggests that slow readers are less effective in suppressing unrelated or inappropriate information during reading. Such findings provide evidence for the lexical quality hypothesis and are in support of the linguistic-pro?ciency hypothesis related to individual differences in the E-Z reader model.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-27 Cooperative journals: 《心理学报》
Abstract： Individuals form internal working models (IWMs) based on their early attachment experiences. IWMs consist of individuals’ views of themselves (i.e., IWM of the self) and others (i.e., IWM of others) within relationships. IWMs guide individuals’ interpretations and anticipations in interpersonal situations, which could influence their interactions with others and the quality of their relationships. As social networks shrink with age, older adults tend to focus more on relationships with close others. Due to the importance of marital relationships in late adulthood, the study examined whether and how older adults’ IWMs affect their marital satisfaction. In addition, the study also examined whether the differences in family roles between husbands and wives impact the relationship between IWMs and marital satisfaction.The main purpose of this study is threefold: 1) To examine whether IWM of the self and IWM of others show different relationships with marital satisfaction; 2) To investigate whether the relationships between older adults’ IWMs and their marital satisfaction are mediated by marital attachment (i.e., the anxiety and the avoidance dimensions of marital attachment); 3) To explore the actor and the partner effects of IWMs on marital satisfaction by modeling couple data with the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (APIM). In order to gain a better understanding of whether traditional family roles have an impact on the relationship between IWMs and marital satisfaction, we also examined whether the effects mentioned above differed between husbands and wives. A total of 112 older couples (mean age = 69.3, SD = 5.02) from communities in Beijing were recruited to participate in this study. Participants completed the demographic information questionnaire, the Elderly Marital Attachment Questionnaire, the Relationship Questionnaire, and the Marriage Satisfaction Questionnaire. SPSS 23.0 and Dyad R were used to perform data analyses, including correlation analysis, mediation modeling, APIM, and analysis of variance (ANOVA). The study yielded several major results. 1) Correlation analysis showed that husbands’ IWM of the self (but not IWM of others) was positively associated with marital satisfaction, while wives’ IWM of others (but not IWM of the self) was positively associated with marital satisfaction. 2) Mediation modeling showed that the association between husbands’ IWM of the self (but not IWM of others) and marital satisfaction was mediated by attachment anxiety and avoidance. In contrast, neither attachment anxiety nor attachment avoidance significantly mediated the relationships between wives’ IWMs and marital satisfaction. 3) APIM showed that husbands’ IWM of the self was positively associated with their own marital satisfaction, while wives’ IWM of others was positively associated with their own and spouses’ marital satisfaction. All other unidirectional paths in the APIM were non-significant. 4) ANOVA showed that husbands (but not wives) reported higher marital satisfaction when both husbands and wives had highly positive IWM of the self. In other words, husbands reported higher marital satisfaction when their own IWM of the self was positive and matched with their wives’ IWM of the self. The study supports the importance of IWMs of attachment in older adults’ marital satisfaction. Our findings suggest that positive IWMs benefit marital satisfaction in general. The significant mediation effects of attachment anxiety/avoidance (particularly in the relationship between husbands’ IWM of the self and marital satisfaction) suggest that IWMs may influence marital satisfaction by affecting anxiety-/avoidance-related thoughts and behaviors during spousal interaction. The study also reveals intriguing differences between husbands and wives with regards to the IWMs - marital satisfaction relationship. Specifically, marital satisfaction seems to be more strongly associated with IWM of the self among husbands, but more strongly associated with IWM of others among wives. These differences may be related to the traditional patriarchal values of Chinese families.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-27 Cooperative journals: 《心理学报》
Abstract： Intertemporal choice is an important and ubiquitous concept that refers to decisions involving tradeoffs among outcomes at different points of time. It is not only a unique feature of human behavior but also relevant to policymaking and national welfare. Dimension-based models, such as tradeoff model, equate-to-differentiate theory, and similarity model, assume that individuals tend to compare the difference between dimensions of delay and outcome before deciding on a single dimension when choosing between a smaller-sooner option and a larger-later one. Considerable empirical evidence from behavioral and process data supports the use of dimension-based models. The existing dimension-based models provide qualitative explanations for an individual’s intertemporal choice and focus on “which dimension is the greater difference dimension”, but ignore the preference of dimension-based difference (i.e., “how much different of the difference between the two dimensions”). In the present study, we used eye-tracking technology to examine the relationship between the preference of dimension-based difference, which is estimated by the tradeoff model, and the information searching process, which is reflected by eye-tracking measures.Two experiments were conducted to test the hypotheses. A total of 75 college students (61 females; mean age = 20.9 ± 2.4 years) participated in Experiment 1. Participants were told to complete two tasks. In the intertemporal choice task, participants chose their preferred option between the two intertemporal options, and their eye movements were recorded in the task. In the analogue scale task, participants were asked to indicate their subjective dimension-based difference judgment by using numbers 1~7. In Experiment 2, we recruited 59 college students (33 females; mean age = 21.9 ± 2.1 years) to participate in the experiment. The tasks and procedures were similar to Experiment 1 except that the participants were asked to repeat the intertemporal choice task twice. The results indicated that preference of dimension-based difference (PDD), which is estimated by the tradeoff model, correlated with the subjective dimension-based difference judgment measured by the analogue scale task (Experiment 1) and could negatively predict the choice reversals (Experiment 2). These findings proved the validity of the estimation of PDD. The results in the two experiments consistently revealed that decision time, gaze transition entropy (a measure of visual scanning efficiency), and stationary gaze entropy (a measure of the level of even distribution across different areas of interest) could negatively predict the PDD, indicating that the information searching process during intertemporal choice could reflect the preference of dimension-based difference. We also found that the outcome gaze proportion (a measure of attention allocation) could predict the dimension-based difference judgment, which is consistent with previous research. Our findings proved the validity of the estimation method of PDD, which could quantitatively estimate the PDD when making an intertemporal choice based on their choices without extra inquiry. The current research highlighted the correlation between the preference of dimension-based difference and the information searching process, providing further process evidence for dimension-based intertemporal models. Future studies that focus on developing intertemporal models involving eye movements should consider replicating the pattern between PDD and eye-tracking measures as revealed in the present study when running data simulations. Our findings also suggest that compared to the determinant models, the probabilistic models can better describe an individual’s intertemporal choice, thereby highlighting the direction of the development of intertemporal models.
Subjects: Psychology >> Developmental Psychology submitted time 2022-11-10
Abstract：
Individuals form internal working models (IWMs) based on their early attachment experiences. IWMs consist of individuals’ views of themselves (i.e., IWM of the self) and others (i.e., IWM of others) within relationships. IWMs guide individuals’ interpretations and anticipations in interpersonal situations, which could influence their interactions with others and the quality of their relationships. As social networks shrink with age, older adults tend to focus more on relationships with close others. Due to the importance of marital relationships in late adulthood, the study examined whether and how older adults’ IWMs affect their marital satisfaction. In addition, the study also examined whether the differences in family roles between husbands and wives impact the relationship between IWMs and marital satisfaction.
The main purpose of this study is threefold: 1) To examine whether IWM of the self and IWM of others show different relationships with marital satisfaction; 2) To investigate whether the relationships between older adults’ IWMs and their marital satisfaction are mediated by marital attachment (i.e., the anxiety and the avoidance dimensions of marital attachment); 3) To explore the actor and the partner effects of IWMs on marital satisfaction by modeling couple data with the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (APIM). In order to gain a better understanding of whether traditional family roles have an impact on the relationship between IWMs and marital satisfaction, we also examined whether the effects mentioned above differed between husbands and wives.
A total of 112 older couples (mean age = 69.3, SD = 5.02) from communities in Beijing were recruited to participate in this study. Participants completed the demographic information questionnaire, the Elderly Marital Attachment Questionnaire, the Relationship Questionnaire, and the Marriage Satisfaction Questionnaire. SPSS23.0 and Dyad R were used to perform data analyses, including correlation analysis, mediation modeling, APIM, and analysis of variance (ANOVA).
The study yielded several major results. 1) Correlation analysis showed that husbands’ IWM of the self (but not IWM of others) was positively associated with marital satisfaction, while wives’ IWM of others (but not IWM of the self) was positively associated with marital satisfaction. 2) Mediation modeling showed that the association between husbands’ IWM of the self (but not IWM of others) and marital satisfaction was mediated by attachment anxiety and avoidance. In contrast, neither attachment anxiety nor attachment avoidance significantly mediated the relationships between wives’ IWMs and marital satisfaction. 3) APIM showed that husbands’ IWM of the self was positively associated with their own marital satisfaction, while wives’ IWM of others was positively associated with their own and spouses’ marital satisfaction. All other unidirectional paths in the APIM were non-significant. 4) ANOVA showed that husbands (but not wives) reported higher marital satisfaction when both husbands and wives had highly positive IWM of the self. In other words, husbands reported higher marital satisfaction when their own IWM of the self was positive and matched with their wives’ IWM of the self.
The study supports the importance of IWMs of attachment in older adults’ marital satisfaction. Our findings suggest that positive IWMs benefit marital satisfaction in general. The significant mediation effects of attachment anxiety/avoidance (particularly in the relationship between husbands’ IWM of the self and marital satisfaction) suggest that IWMs may influence marital satisfaction by affecting anxiety-/avoidance-related thoughts and behaviors during spousal interaction. The study also reveals intriguing differences between husbands and wives with regards to the IWMs – marital satisfaction relationship. Specifically, marital satisfaction seems to be more strongly associated with IWM of the self among husbands, but more strongly associated with IWM of others among wives. These differences may be related to the traditional patriarchal values of Chinese families.
Peer Review Status:Awaiting Review
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2022-10-30
Abstract：
Intertemporal choice is an important and ubiquitous concept that refers to decisions involving tradeoffs among outcomes at different points of time. It is not only a unique feature of human behavior but also relevant to policymaking and national welfare. Dimension-based models, such as tradeoff model, equate-to-differentiate theory, and similarity model, assume that individuals tend to compare the difference between dimensions of delay and outcome before deciding on a single dimension when choosing between a smaller-sooner option and a larger-later one. Considerable empirical evidence from behavioral and process data supports the use of dimension-based models. The existing dimension-based models provide qualitative explanations for an individual’s intertemporal choice and focus on “which dimension is the greater difference dimension”, but ignore the preference of dimension-based difference (i.e., “how much different of the difference between the two dimensions”). In the present study, we used eye-tracking technology to examine the relationship between the preference of dimension-based difference, which is estimated by the tradeoff model, and the information searching process, which is reflected by eye-tracking measures.
Two experiments were conducted to test the hypotheses. A total of 75 college students (61 females; mean age = 20.9 ± 2.4 years) participated in Experiment 1. Participants were told to complete two tasks. In the intertemporal choice task, participants chose their preferred option between the two intertemporal options, and their eye movements were recorded in the task. In the analogue scale task, participants were asked to indicate their subjective dimension-based difference judgment by using numbers 1~7. In Experiment 2, we recruited 59 college students (33 females; mean age = 21.9 ± 2.1 years) to participate in the experiment. The tasks and procedures were similar to Experiment 1 except that the participants were asked to repeat the intertemporal choice task twice.
The results indicated that preference of dimension-based difference (PDD), which is estimated by the tradeoff model, correlated with the subjective dimension-based difference judgment measured by the analogue scale task (Experiment 1) and could negatively predict the choice reversals (Experiment 2). These findings proved the validity of the estimation of PDD. The results in the two experiments consistently revealed that decision time, gaze transition entropy (a measure of visual scanning efficiency), and stationary gaze entropy (a measure of the level of even distribution across different areas of interest) could negatively predict the PDD, indicating that the information searching process during intertemporal choice could reflect the preference of dimension-based difference. We also found that the outcome gaze proportion (a measure of attention allocation) could predict the dimension-based difference judgment, which is consistent with previous research.
Our findings proved the validity of the estimation method of PDD, which could quantitatively estimate the PDD when making an intertemporal choice based on their choices without extra inquiry. The current research highlighted the correlation between the preference of dimension-based difference and the information searching process, providing further process evidence for dimension-based intertemporal models. Future studies that focus on developing intertemporal models involving eye movements should consider replicating the pattern between PDD and eye-tracking measures as revealed in the present study when running data simulations. Our findings also suggest that compared to the determinant models, the probabilistic models can better describe an individual’s intertemporal choice, thereby highlighting the direction of the development of intertemporal models.
Peer Review Status:Awaiting Review
Subjects: Psychology >> Cognitive Psychology submitted time 2022-06-27
Abstract： According to the lexical quality hypothesis, high proficient (fast) readers have well-specified lexical representations which enable automatic word identification and less context decoding (Andrews, 2015; Perfetti, 2007), while low proficient (slow) readers rely on context for word identification during reading due to their imprecise lexical quality. In contrast, the predictive coding framework assumes that high proficient readers rely more on their reading experience to predict the upcoming context compared to low proficient readers (Hawelka et al., 2015). However, it is still unclear how skilled readers with different levels of reading proficiency rely on context information (e.g., predictability) for word processing during Chinese reading. In two experiments, the present study aimed to investigate individual differences in the use of predictability for word identification by using the eye-tracking technique. In Experiment 1, eye movements of fast and slow readers were recorded while they were reading sentences containing predictable or unpredictable target words, with the aim to investigate the differences in predictability effects between the two groups. Sixty pairs of predictable-unpredictable target words were selected, each of which was embedded into the same sentence frame. Fifteen fast and 15 slow readers, selected from a group of 66 participants based on their reading rates, participated in Experiment 1. In Experiment 2, parafoveal previews of the 60 predictable target words (identical word, visually similar pseudocharacter, unpredictable word or visually dissimilar pseudocharacter) were manipulated by using the boundary paradigm (Rayner, 1975) to explore how parafoveal preview influences processing of predictability information in the fast and slow readers. The eye movements of 20 fast and 20 slow readers, selected from a group of 80 participants on the basis of their reading rates, were recorded while they were reading sentences containing predictable target words with different previews in Experiment 2. The results showed that fast readers fixated shorter and less on the target words and were more likely to skip the target words than slow readers. In Experiment 1, although reliable predictability effects with shorter fixations for predictable than unpredictable words were found, it did not interact with reading groups. However, results in Experiment 2 showed robust parafoveal preview effects on the target word which interacted with reading groups. In particular, the two groups had the same first-pass fixation times (i.e., FFD, SFD, GD) at the target words under the identical previews, while slow readers made longer fixations than fast readers at the targets with unpredictable previews or unrelated previews. In addition, fast readers skipped target words at a similar probability under both the identical preview and unpredictable preview conditions, while slow readers were less likely to skip target words with unpredictable previews than identical previews. The current findings indicate that fast and slow readers rely on context to a similar degree during their foveal lexical processing whereas the two groups show different utilization of previews of the predictable word during their parafoveal processing. To be specific, compared to fast readers, slow readers are inefficient in activating the predictable word with a visually similar preview; moreover, slow readers are disturbed more by the unpredictable preview or the visually dissimilar preview for their lexical processing, which suggests that slow readers are less effective in suppressing unrelated or inappropriate information during reading. Such findings provide evidence for the lexical quality hypothesis (Perfetti, 2007) and are in support of the linguistic-pro?ciency hypothesis related to individual differences in the E-Z reader model (Reichle et al., 2013).
Peer Review Status:Awaiting Review
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