The negative effects, causes, and interventions of gender stereotypes on men: Descriptive vs. prescriptive/proscriptive

Abstract: Gender stereotypes are culturally shared beliefs about what the characteristics, attributes, and behaviors that men and women typically have (descriptive gender stereotypes) and those they should or should not have (prescriptive/proscriptive gender stereotypes). Not only women but also men are adversely affected by these stereotypes, which have been linked to diminished linguistic and socioemotional functioning, reduced engagement in health care, elementary education, and domestic roles, compromised attention to their own physical and psychological well-being, and continued reinforcement of masculine-contest cultures. According to the integrated process model of stereotype threat effects, the negative effects of descriptive gender stereotypes on men arise primarily through the depletion of working memory. In contrast, role congruity theory and the status incongruity hypothesis posit that prescriptive/proscriptive gender stereotypes undermine men chiefly by framing their behaviors as violations of gender and status roles. Interventions can target the underlying processes by providing positive role models, emphasizing multiple social identities, and fostering self-affirmation. Additionally, interventions can seek to alter gender roles at their source, consistent with social role theory. Future research could examine how the positive effects of gender stereotypes on men might buffer negative impacts, how cultural differences shape these outcomes, how gender stereotypes influence boys, and how novel interventions can be developed using artificial intelligence.